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    • br Discussion Although the association

    2018-11-02


    Discussion Although the association between district-level economic affluence and glut 1 was contrary to our hypothesis, it has prior support in the literature (Lo et al., 2006; Snedker et al., 2009). Possibly, more economically advantaged districts may create norms supporting frequent alcohol use (Karriker-Jaffe, 2011). Another interpretation of the observed relationship is that adolescents living in more affluent districts may have more access to alcohol because their parents monitor them less (Reboussin et al., 2010). Dual career upper middle-class parents often have less time to monitor children after school and may be less engaged in children׳s after-school activities, especially in Taiwan, where the dual career family rate is high (Lu, Kao, Chang, Wu, & Cooper, 2008; Trim & Chassin, 2008). It should be noted that we measured the economic disadvantage environment through a created composite index from several administrative data (e.g., Census). Given constructing an index to reflect the economic disadvantage environment is complicated and culture-dependent, future research replicating our methods to untangle the relationship between economic disadvantage and underage drinking in Taiwan is needed. Our results demonstrate that the adverse effect of district-level violent crime on alcohol initiation is only observed among adolescents who had seen their parent drink. Areas with higher levels of violent crime tend to have lower levels of social control and higher rates of youth delinquency (Ingoldsby & Shaw, 2002; Lambert et al., 2004). For example, previous research has shown that living in a violent area is associated with subsequent alcohol initiation because of the affiliations with deviant peer groups (Lambert et al., 2004; Mrug & Windle, 2009). Also, adolescents who have observed their parent׳s drinking may have greater alcohol access in their home and a higher endorsement of positive alcohol expectancies, such as the expectation that alcohol enhances social behaviors (Chen et al., 2011; Zucker et al., 2009). Both of these socialization factors may encourage adolescents to mimic parental drinking to foster positive social interaction with peers and amplify the adverse effects of violent crime on alcohol initiation. The significant moderating effect of parental drinking on district-level violent crime highlights the important interactive effect of family-level and place-based environments on adolescent alcohol initiation. Spatial access to off-premises alcohol outlets around homes predicted continued alcohol use (Azar et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2010; Huckle et al., 2008; Livingston et al., 2008; Rowland et al., 2014; Tobler, Komro, & Maldonado-Molina, 2009; Wang et al., 2013), and higher proportion of betel nut kiosks compared to off-premises alcohol outlets was associated with alcohol initiation. Consistent with Availability Theory and prior research, our findings indicate that living in an alcogenic environment has a prospective impact on underage drinking (Rowland et al., 2016), but the impact varies by their prior drinking experience. Betel nut kiosks are an easy venue to obtain alcohol without photo identification, and spatial access to such a low-threshold venue appears to facilitate alcohol initiation. In contrast, off-premises alcohol outlets are influential for adolescents who used alcohol continually. Alcohol-experienced adolescents may also be more skillful in successfully obtaining alcohol from these off-premises alcohol outlets (e.g., dressing older than their actual ages, shoulder tapping, or choosing cashiers with more than one person in line) (Forster, Murray, Wolfson, & Wagenaar, 1995). Our findings are among the first to prospectively examine the benefits of place-based institutional resources on underage drinking in Asian countries. Consistent with our hypothesis, the proximity to MRT was associated with lower risks of continued alcohol use. Greater accessibility to MRT exits may make circulatory system easier for adolescents to reach local recreational facilities and public resources that are conducive to adolescent well-being; engagement with these resources in turn might prevent adolescent from continued alcohol consumption. Chen and colleagues also found that higher access to MRT in Taipei was associated with lower rates of alcohol purchasing among youth (Chen et al., 2011). Because of patterns of land use and development in Taipei, districts with higher access to MRT are usually commercial regions that have a higher level of social control. Perhaps residents and businesses in these districts have higher collective efficacy (e.g., better compliance with minimum age-of-sale enforcement) that discourages underage drinking (Maimon & Browning, 2012).