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    • br Future work The goals we describe in terms

    2018-11-09


    Future work The goals we describe in terms of security and privacy can be strengthened by enforcing user roles and privileges with IAM (Identity and Access Management), offered by AWS and soon Google Cloud Platform. In addition to the aggregation privilege and supporting service described above, we can implement other similar privacy policies as enhanced permissions. In particular, Differential Privacy (Dwork, 2011) adds noise to query results proportional to sensitivity and can be used to generate synthetic datasets.
    Conclusions
    Acknowledgments
    The authors also wish to acknowledge the contributions of Diego Ponce De Leon Barido, Bradford Campbell, Prabal Dutta, Noah Klugman, Clarice Larson, Madhav Murthy, and Pat Pannuto to this project. This work was supported by the Development Impact Lab (USAID Cooperative Agreement AID-OAA-A-13-00002), part of the USAID Higher Education Solutions Network. Andreas Kipf was supported by a fellowship within the FITweltweit program of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).
    Background and motivation Three billion people rely on purchase AL 8697 combustion to cook their food which contributes to the increasing stock of anthropogenic greenhouse gases and aerosols (The World Bank, 2011; Bond et al., 2004). Renewable biomass (RB) and non-renewable biomass (NRB) distinguish harvested products that leave net standing biomass stocks unchanged or depleted, respectively. Either RB or NRB can be utilized in cooking. While biomass-burning stoves generate over 1 billion tonnes of CO2 annually (The World Bank, 2011), some of these CO2 emissions come from combustion of RB and therefore do not increase the anthropogenic stock of CO2. However, in many parts of the developing world biomass resources are not sustainably harvested. This is true in the regions around internally displaced peoples\' camps in North Darfur, Sudan where 55% of fuel wood is NRB (Codipietri and Drigo, 2010). Incomplete combustion of RB or NRB will generate non-CO2 climate-forcing products of incomplete combustion (PIC) such as methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, and black carbon aerosols. These PICs have significant radiative forcing properties, and black carbon is estimated to be the second or third largest anthropogenic contributor to radiative forcing after CO2 and methane (Bailis et al., 2003; Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008). In the case of NRB combustion, displacement of traditional cookstoves such as three-stone fires (TSF) (Fig. 1) and inefficient earthen stoves with fuel-efficient cookstoves has the potential to reduce net CO2 emissions by as much as 25–50% (The World Bank, 2011; Barnes et al., 1994). In this paper, the combined 100-year global warming potentials (GWP) of anthropogenic CO2 and PICs are referred to in terms of CO2-equivalent (CO2-e) emissions. Unlike a TSF or basic mud stove, a fuel-efficient cookstove has embodied CO2-e stemming from the use of modern materials in construction and the energy required to manufacture and transport the cookstove to the user. Many cookstoves including the popular EcoZoom (formerly StoveTec), Envirofit, and BDS are manufactured outside the customers\' home country using modern energy-intensive materials and subsequently transported thousands of kilometers through complex supply chains to their points of use. To date, the dominant discussion in the literature has been the use-phase emissions of fuel-efficient cookstoves (MacCarty et al., 2008, 2010; Jetter and Kariher, 2009; Panwar et al., 2009; Roden et al., 2009; Barnes et al., 1994). These analyses do not consider the impact of cookstove materials, manufacturing, transportation, and end of life. Informally, many cookstove proponents assume that cookstoves will pay off embodied emissions, however, to our knowledge, this assumption has not been substantiated in the literature. Afrane and Ntiamoah (2012) compared the environmental impact of various cooking fuels used in Ghana and investigated the differences between charcoal, wood, propane, biogas, kerosene, and electricity. While fuel processing emissions were taken into account, the infrastructure required for each fuel type was neglected if the data was not readily available. Bailis et al. (2003) investigated the emissions of six types of wood and charcoal-burning cookstoves and compared their 20-year GWP with the TSF. In that study the non-use-phase emissions such as embodied CO2-e in materials, manufacturing, and transportation necessary to distribute stoves were not considered when the cookstove\'s GWP were calculated. While the literature does provide some preliminary work on non-use-phase impact of cookstoves (Jungbluth, 1997), it does not provide careful analysis or case studies of embodied CO2-e in cookstoves compared to the CO2-e savings from their use.